The four most serious English spelling problems (consonant doubling and unpredictable spellings for the EE-sound, the O-E -sound and the two OO-sounds) affect large numbers
of words [1040 + 454 + 378 + 217 = 2089] and create both spelling and reading problems.
Another 1191 unpredictable spellings for 5 sounds (ur/er/ir, or/aw, s, sh and the unstressed half-vowel in endings like –en/ -on/ -an and –er/ -or/ -ar) impede mainly progress in writing.
The endings –en/ -on/ -an/ -in/ -ain are unpredictable in 205 words:
chicken [73] / beckon [69] / pelican [34] / pumpkin [22] / certain [7].
The –er ending which occurs in at least 350 words, like ‘mother, sister, thinner’
is not followed by 179: visitor [75], popular [34], future [44],
and in the UK also theatre [7] and harbour [18].
The endings –ary / -ery / -ory / -ury vary randomly in 94 words:
contrary[37] / cemetery[25] / symmetry[14] /dormitory[12] / century[6].
Ur / er / ir – This sound has 206 random spellings: turn[73] / term[70] / third[39]
and [24] others.
Au / aw / al / augh /ough spellings vary in 101 words:
haunt[38] / crawl[37], all[24], bought[7], caught[6].
In standard UK English they spell the same sound as or in ‘ford’.
Or /ore /oar /our spellings vary in 127 words: nor[79] / [48] more, roar, four, door.
S / c / sc / ss – This uncertainty causes 195 exceptions from 302 spellings but
comprises three different sub-patterns:
Initial s- [91] (seldom, sincere, system) / [57] c, sc (cell, civil, cynical, scent)
(before e, i and y)
Middle -c- [71] (cancel / [37] -s- , -sc- (counsel, descend)
Final –ce [140] (face, office) / [100] -se, -s, -ss (case, tennis, carcass)
The SH-sound has no reliable spelling pattern in word endings in 145 words:
61 ti spatial, pretentious, mention, ignition
48 ci facial, officious, 20 si tension, 10 ssi mission
and a few others.
The SH-sound also has 33 unpredictable spellings at the beginning and in the middle of
The endings –en/ -on/ -an/ -in/ -ain are unpredictable in 205 words
abdomen alien awaken barren bitten bracken brazen brighten chicken children chosen
christen citizen delicatessen dozen drive eleven even fallen forgotten frighten frozen
garden given glisten golden happen heathen heaven hidden hydrogen kindergarten
kitchen kitten laden lessen lichen listen loosen madden mitten often omen open oven
oxygen pollen raven ridden ripen risen rotten sadden seven sharpen* sodden
specimen spoken stamen stolen strengthen sudden sullen swollen taken threaten
token vixen warren women wooden woollen written
abandon apron bacon badminton baron baton beacon beckon bison carbon
carton cauldron common comparison cordon cotton coupon crayon crimson
damson demon dragon electron flagon gallon heron horizon iron jettison lemon
lesson mason matron melon mutton nylon octagon pardon pentagon person
phenomenon piston poison prison pylon python reason reckon ribbon salmon
salon Saxon season sermon siphon skeleton summon talon treason venison
wagon wanton weapon
chameleon dungeon luncheon pigeon surgeon truncheon
Alsatian amphibian cardigan Christian civilian comedian Dalmatian historian
hooligan Indonesian magician metropolitan musician ocean optician organ orphan
partisan pedestrian pelican republican Roman rowan ruffian slogan suburban
tartan toucan turban urban utopian vegetarian veteran woman
aspirin basin bulletin cabin catkin coffin cousin dolphin gherkin goblin javelin
origin paraffin penguin pumpkin raisin robin satin sequin tarpaulin urchin
vermin
bargain captain certain fountain mountain porcelain villain
The –er ending pattern of ‘mother, sister, thinner’ is disobeyed by 179 words
actor advisor alligator ambassador ancestors anchor assessors author boaconstrictor
calculator castor conductor conveyor corridor decorator demonstrator director doctor
editor elevator emperor equator error escalator factor gladiator governor indicator
interior inventor investors junior juror legislators liquor major manor mayor minor mirror
monitor motor navigator operator orator prior professor proprietor radiator
razor rector refrigerator respirator rotor scissors senator senior sensors solicitor
spectator sponsor successor superior supervisor surveyor survivor tailor tenor terror
tractor traitor tutor victor visitor warrior
In UK English not –or:
armour behaviour colour favour flavour glamour harbour honour humour labour
neighbour odour parlour rumour saviour savour splendour tumour
angular burglar caterpillar cellar circular collar dollar familiar grammar guitar jaguar
liar linear lunar muscular nectar nuclear particular peculiar pillar polar poplar
popular radar regular scholar secular similar sitar solar spectacular sugar vicar
vulgar
adventure agriculture architecture capture caricature creature culture departure
expenditure feature fracture furniture future gesture lecture legislature literature
manufacture miniature mixture nature picture puncture scripture signature structure
temperature torture venture vulture
conjure exposure failure figure fissure figure fissure injure leisure measure pleasure
treasure pressure procedure